An Analysis of Toyota’s Strategic Procurement and Supply Chain Management

Purchasing & Materials Management| | Strategic Procurement & Supply Chain Management| Introduction The topic selected is (Strategic Procurement & Supply Chain Management). For this study, we have selected Toyota Motor Corporations as our company of choice. Toyota is without doubt the best in the world, with its many philosophies and principles on how to make the best out of the least; JIT, lean production and elimination of waste and the desire for continuous improvement are just a few ways how Toyota has become the best in the auto industry.Toyota as a name, a company, and as a brand has become synonymous with Quality. At the heart of its success, lie family values that have been passed down; a norm that has become the Organizational Culture of Toyota – The Quest for Excellence, and The Passion to Lead. Toyota’s achievement of excellence stems from implementing lean production, or which they refer to as ‘The Toyota Way’. The most visible product of Toyotaà ¢â‚¬â„¢s quest for excellence is its manufacturing philosophy, called the Toyota Production System (TPS).We have selected to apply this topic to Toyota, because to perfect their way of lean production, they work on it from the root; i. e. their suppliers, and purchasing strategy. Scope of Project Analyzing the strategies of Toyota, and how they implement it in their purchasing and procurement policy. Also, analyzing how Toyota selects it suppliers and what selection processes do they go through; and also conducting an analysis of Toyota’s supply chain and its supply chain management. Limitations This study was really difficult to attain, as personal interviews or nteractions with Toyota’s direct employees was beyond our budgets to conduct. This study is a result of hard work and extensive internet and textual or written research from more than ten websites and three books. Also, the study of Toyota was too large and very difficult to summarize into the limited requirem ents of this paper. Company Background The Toyota Motor Co. Ltd was first established in 1937 as a spin-off from Toyoda Automatic Loom Works, one of the world's leading manufacturers of weaving machinery. The Toyoda Automatic Loom Works was then headed by Japan's â€Å"King of Inventors† Sakichi Toyoda.The patent rights to one of his machines had been sold to Platt Brothers (UK) and provided the seed-money for the development and test-building of Toyota's first automobiles. August 2007 marked the 70th anniversary of TMC. The fledgling company founded by Kiichiro Toyoda, Sakichi's son, has since blossomed into the leader that it is today. In 1950 the company experienced its one and only strike. Labour and management emerged from this stoppage firmly committed to the principles of mutual trust and dependence, and that corporate philosophy still guides T0oyota’s growth today.Production systems were improved in the late 1950s, culminating in the establishment of the Ã¢â‚¬Ë œToyota Production System. ‘ It became known as TPS in 1970 but was established much earlier by Taiichi Ohno. Based on the principles of Jidoka, Just-in-time and Kaizen, the system is a major factor in the reduction of inventories and defects in the plants of Toyota and its suppliers, and it underpins all of Toyota’s operations across the World. Toyota launched its first small car (SA Model) in 1947.Production of vehicles outside Japan began in 1959 at a small plant in Brazil, and continued with a growing network of overseas plants. Toyota believes in localizing its operations to provide customers with the products they need where they need them; this philosophy builds mutually beneficial long-term relationships with local suppliers and helps the company fulfill its commitments to local labour. Over and above manufacturing, Toyota also has a global network of design and ‘Research and Development' facilities, embracing the three major car markets of Japan, North Am erica and Europe.In every community in which the company operates, Toyota strives to be a responsible corporate citizen; close relationships with people and organizations in the local community are essential contributors to mutual prosperity. Across the world, Toyota participates enthusiastically in community activities ranging from the sponsorship of educational and cultural programmes to international exchange and research. Toyota has the fastest product development process in the world. New cars and trucks take 12 months or less to design, while competitors typically require two to three years.Toyota is benchmarked as the best in class by all of its peers and competitors throughout the world for high quality, high productivity, manufacturing speed, and flexibility. Toyota automobiles have consistently been at the top of quality rankings. Strategic Analysis To better understand a firm and its placement of its strategies, we must conduct an analysis of factors that might affect its selection of strategies. SWOT Analysis Strengths * Toyota Motor Corporation is the world’s largest vehicle manufacturer by production and sales. * Toyota is best known for environmentally safe, quality, reliability, durability and value for money. Toyota’s Camry and Corolla have been the top-selling cars in their respected categories; in the past eight out of nine years. Also, Toyota produces the globe’s best selling hybrid car, the Prius – which by 2010 had surpassed two million sales worldwide. * Strong distribution and marketing efforts focused on meeting diverse needs, high quality sales and services, and close involvement with customers. * Low cost, high quality factory operations guided by just in time. * Toyota maintains long-term partnerships with suppliers, and strategic partners. Toyota holds the competitive edge of being the undisputed quality leader in automotive marketing. * Strong brand equity. * Diversified product portfolio (Lexus, Daihat su, Hino) leading to increasing customer base. * Toyota’s success allows it to invest heavily in Research and Development and in the future. Weaknesses * From the last quarter of 2009 through to the 1st quarter of 2010, Toyota had recalled more than 8 million cars and trucks globally in numerous recall campaigns, and temporarily stopped production and sales. * Toyota was badly hit by the 2008 financial crisis, and declared its first annual loss in its 70 years history. Toyota does not have detailed customer segmentation * Customers are not involved in the process. * Toyota places a very high level of responsibility on employee shoulders. * After the 2009-2010 recall crisis, Toyota was criticized for not having or employing enough PR staff, and that it was not able to manage its Customer Relations. Opportunities * Joint ventures with French motoring companies Peugeot and Citroen has provided various opportunities for the company to produce cars in France. * North American cons umers have shifted to more fuel-efficient and higher quality products of the European and Japanese automakers. Produce fuel-efficient, higher quality and smaller automobiles that can attract the consumers in developing and poor countries. * There is a growing demand for hybrid electric cars. Threats * Rising oil prices and other car maintenance costs, leading to decrease in car ownership. * Encouragement from governments and pressure from environmentalists to turn to more environmental friendly methods of transportation (e. g. cycling and public transportation) * Escalating competition in the low priced car market by the entrance of several newly industrialized countries. Continuing trade frictions due to trade imbalances between Japan and other countries and the lack in openness of the Japanese market to import. * Declining economic growth on a global scale. * Major producers, including the Big Three of U. S (G. M, Ford and Chrysler) offered significant discounts across their lineu ps. PESTLE Analysis Political The auto-industry is being pushed into a socio-politico-economic corner. Carmakers are regularly being restricted with new laws or policies or requirements; that they must adhere to. Toyota likewise is linked closely to the policies of the government.Not only this, but emerging countries, that are keen to develop an auto sector are putting political pressure on Toyota, so as to protect it and develop it. Economic Toyota Company is a pillar company in the auto mobile business, a flag of economic progress. The Toyota Company has been a core company, a unique phenomenon, which has dominated the twentieth century. However, the automobile industry, including Toyota Company has suffered a series of structural problems and has become riddled with contradictions and economic discontinuities; including the recent financial crisis. SocialAs part of the development in automotive industry, the Toyota Company actually affects the society as a whole. It employs milli ons of people directly, and tens of millions others indirectly. Its products have transformed society, bringing unbelievable levels of mobility and changing the ways people live and work. Nearly since its startup, Toyota has been a model of social discipline, control and improvement and it is not just the auto sector, where it has left a mark. Toyota is considered a role model in millions of organizations and institutions worldwide. It has with its culture been the example that professors use in every business school.Technological Toyota works on a brilliant scale and has such a vast influence that it is impossible to miss. Due to continuous improvement in demands, the level of technology that Toyota has to implement is increasing, and this adds to the challenges of heavy investment burdens on its R&D, and increases its uncertainties and risks in developing the technologies. Technologically, the automotive industry is becoming increasingly competitive. Legal Toyota is subject to a m ultitude of rules and regulations, as well as laws and legislations of a more legal nature.These laws and legislations cover areas such as competition law, intellectual property law, taxation, consumer protection law and emissions. Environmental Transportation through automobiles consumes a lot of the earth’s precious resources. Also to include as environmental issues are the network of roads that are made for the running of automobiles. The forests or ecosystems that are destroyed to make those roads are also environmental issues. Also, the extraction of oil as a usage of fuel; all are environmental costs. Another environmental cost is the extraction of raw materials that go into the making of these automobiles.Indirectly the automotive industry brings people congestion, pollution, traffic accidents and fatalities and a wave of other environmental troubles. Due to this, Toyota needed to establish R&D centres to take advantage of research infrastructure, human capital and tec hnical and technological knowledge, so they can develop vehicles to satisfy the requirements of the environmental and safety regulations more effectively. Toyota’s Core Competencies Toyota has several core competencies which they could utilize to further gain advantage over their competitors. In January of 2009, Toyota overtook the U.S. auto giant General Motors, to become the market leader in the automotive industry. One core competency of Toyota is their brand management. The strength of their automotive marketing has been such that their brand is known even in the parts of the world where cars are not the common medium of transportation. Another core competency is their supply chain management, which shows their ability to maintain a steady stream of raw material coming in for production, because of their long-term good relationships with their steel, glass, plastics and other raw material suppliers.Another thing that forms part of their core competencies is their highly c oordinated logistics system, which is outsourced; and leads to excellent inventory management and always on schedule production activities. Another major core competency of Toyota is their ability at the moving assembly line. Not only this; The Toyota Way of lean production, its JIT and TQM approach; all are part of its core competencies. Being the pioneer of such mass production and waste elimination system, they were able to get ahead of the competitors manufacturing process-wise and were also able to save on cost and time.Yet another core competency is Toyota’s focusing on its product development technology under a single product-information-management program through standardizing and incorporating them; thus highlighting Toyota’s work and effort on the development of sustainable production, and their commitment to perform environmentally. Toyota and its suppliers Toyota has basically 14 management principles, which combine to make ‘The Toyota Way’. Of those 14 principles, Principle 11 states that: â€Å"Respect your Extended Network of Partners and Suppliers by Challenging Them and Helping Them Improve†.This is merely a small sentence, but is more than enough to illustrate the importance of its suppliers to Toyota, and how it sees them as strategic partners and a part of its organization. Toyota in its early days was very small, and didn’t have a lot of business or production. It didn’t have the resources, capital or equipment to design and make the myriad of components that go into the making of a car. Toyota’s offer to its suppliers was small. It was the opportunity for all partners to grow the business together and mutually benefit in the long term.So, like the associates who work inside Toyota, suppliers became part of the extended family who grew and learned the Toyota Production System. Even when Toyota became a global powerhouse, it maintained its supplier partnerships. One way that Toyota has honed its skills in applying TPS is by working on projects with suppliers. Toyota needs its suppliers to be as capable as its own plants at building and delivering high-quality components just in time. Moreover, Toyota cannot cut costs unless suppliers cut costs, lest Toyota simply push cost reductions onto suppliers, which is not the Toyota Way.Since Toyota does not view parts as commodities to be sourced on the market through open bidding, it is critical that it works with highly capable suppliers that are following TPS or an equivalent system. Toyota’s purchasing department has its own quality and TPS experts to work with suppliers when there are problems. Toyota pays careful attention to its suppliers and their performance. It provides ample hands-on assistance and monitoring to avoid problems; or in the case of an occurrence of a problem, to correct it as soon as possible.If problems do occur, Toyota sends a team of its experts to address the problem and to create the ac tion plan. Whereas other companies would threaten problem suppliers—â€Å"Fix the problems or we will drop you†Ã¢â‚¬â€Toyota nurses them out of their â€Å"sickness† in a very holistic way. There are several advantages for Toyota in treating suppliers as strategic partners or part of the Toyota family. First of all Toyota’s JIT system is a practiced specimen, of how important and beneficial supplier relationships truly are. This system would have never been truly effective if successful integration with suppliers had not taken place.Parts and components arrive just when they are needed and hence Toyota saves on storage and warehouse costs. Toyota’s suppliers are integral to the just-in-time philosophy, both when it is working smoothly and when there is a breakdown in the system. Toyota also saves money on its logistics, and this as well roots from careful integration with suppliers. Also the TQM system of Toyota can be traced back to Toyotaâ€℠¢s supply chain management. Toyota outsources almost 70% of the components that go into its cars, and it maintains close relationships with its key suppliers, so as to procure quality parts and components.Toyota has been rewarded time and time again for its serious investment in building a network of highly capable suppliers that is truly integrated into Toyota’s extended lean enterprise. Much of the award winning quality that distinguishes Toyota and Lexus results from the excellence in innovation, engineering, manufacture, and overall reliability of Toyota’s suppliers. Toyota’s Purchasing Strategy Toyota’s Purchasing/Procurement Policy The ultimate objective of Toyota is to produce vehicles that fully satisfy the customer.To this end, Toyota has developed three basic principles that guide its relationship with suppliers with a view to optimizing its purchases in a global context. These principles are the following: i) Fair competition based on an open d oor policy Toyota is open to any potential supplier, regardless of nationality, size or whether this company is a first-time supplier or not. Toyota’s co-operation with suppliers is solely based on business considerations, which include an assessment of the overall economic and technological capacities of the potential supplier.Critical parameters of this evaluation are quality, cost, technological capabilities and reliability regarding the on-time delivery of the required quantities of inputs, as well as the entrepreneur’s ability to implement a kaizen strategy, which means the continued improvement and enhancement of products, services and management. ii) Mutual benefit based on mutual trust Toyota believes in developing mutually beneficial, long-term relationships with suppliers based on trust and confidence. Close and wide-ranging communication with them is considered a key factor in building and maintaining trust. ii) Contribution to local economic development thr ough localization and good corporate governance As part of the on-going globalisation efforts, Toyota is relocating a larger part of its production to other countries. It is its objective to contribute to the host country’s economic development in line with Toyota’s market presence by purchasing parts and other inputs from local suppliers. This is a Flowchart of the Toyota’s Purchasing Process Toyota’s Supply Chain Management Toyota’s Supplier Consideration and the Selection Process At Toyota, choosing a supplier is a long, drawn-out process that involves erifying whether the supplier will mesh with the supply network. In some cases, suppliers are selected because they have innovations that improve processes or decrease costs. Both new and existing suppliers are expected to share their innovations with other suppliers that supply similar products. As a basic rule, Toyota expects its suppliers to excel in quality, cost, delivery, and engineering, in cluding technology, and management. These are the five key areas that shape competitive entrepreneurs and make them successful in a competitive environment.Thus, Toyota requires suppliers to maintain consistently high quality levels which can be measured in terms of the number of defect parts per million. In addition, suppliers need to build and to maintain a strong position regarding unique designs or special technologies, while being cost- competitive. They also need to follow and to monitor trends in information technology and be able to harmoniously amalgamate state-of-the-art technology with their business organization. It is often necessary that potential suppliers undergo a preparatory process before entering a business partnership with Toyota.During this period, the management should attach particular emphasis on the following issues: * Encouragement of an enterprise culture of creativity, continuous learning and improvement; * Particular attention on R & D, which should go beyond technological issues to include an analysis of both customers’ needs and competitors’ competitive potential; * Improvement of employees’ satisfaction in order to promote creativity and strengthen organizational development; * Strengthening the management information system to help executives to take informed and effective decisions.Toyota views new suppliers cautiously and gives only very small orders. They must prove their sincerity and commitment to Toyota’s high performance standards for quality, cost, and delivery. If they demonstrate this for early orders, they will get increasingly larger orders. Toyota will teach them the Toyota Way and adopt them into the family. This is a model of what Toyota expects from its suppliers. Toyota’s suppliers have to show excellence in areas that Toyota sees as critical. These areas are cost, delivery, engineering, management and quality.Toyota’s philosophy is that suppliers have to excel in thes e areas if they wish to stand out amongst other suppliers and to be successful with global competitiveness Tiered Supplier Organizations Toyota like many auto carmakers is a network of suppliers. Tier 1 suppliers are Toyota’s direct suppliers, which is followed by Tier 2 suppliers and so on. Lastly, there are the Tier 4 suppliers. These are generally small in size, but are critical to the suppliers that are supplying Toyota. Toyota, to maintain the smooth flow in its supply chain, even handles when problem exist in these Tiers.An example of this can be a situation in which a government regulation required a change in antirust coatings. More than 4,000 parts were impacted by this change, but there were only a small number of suppliers that supplied the coating materials. Thus, Toyota was able to focus attention on a few suppliers to develop the new coating materials to be provided to suppliers that coated the 4,000 parts. Working with these lower-tier suppliers was the key to making the necessary changes in a timely and efficient manner. Toyota chooses suppliers across multiple tiers so as to guarantee availability of innovative solutions across the supply chain.Pressure on Suppliers to Perform Toyota’s suppliers are always at their toes. They do not get complacent or feel that they can ease-out, even if they are considered as Toyota’s trusted suppliers and have been supplying Toyota quality materials for a number of years. Even suppliers who have acquired long-term contracts from Toyota, for supplying specific components for a model or set of models have to prove that they are worth the trust to have been given the contract. Otherwise they would jeopardize their opportunity of continuing as Toyota’s suppliers or risk not acquiring such a contract in future models.The depth of Toyota’s Supplier Relationship Toyota’s suppliers suggest that Toyota’s processes have a few characteristics that enable their success, na mely: * Pervasive collaboration tools that have common standards and are compatible with one another * Visibility and visual control not fogged by analysis * Trust to share intellectual property without fear of abuse * Modular view of teams and processes and flexible planning to keep goals aligned with customer needs * Encouragement of teams as a vehicle to solve problems Assisting and Helping SuppliersA key feature of Toyota’s supply chain is the automaker’s role in supplier capability development. This point has already been addressed earlier in this project, how Toyota provides assistance to its suppliers and helps them learn. Supplier Location Decisions Toyota’s planning for assembly plant sites assumes that most suppliers will be located at a reasonable distance from the assembly plant and that their delivery schedules will permit efficient operation of the assembly plant to produce vehicles based on the final vehicle mix and sequence.The low lot sizes of a ssembly plant parts orders imply that suppliers need to be located close to the assembly plant. Many suppliers choose to be located close to an assembly plant. In Japan, 85 percent of the volume comes from suppliers located within a 50-mile radius of a plant (i. e. , within a one-hour drive). In North America and Europe, the goal is for 80 percent of the parts to be delivered within three to five days lead time. The Toyota Target Value System The Toyota Target Value System is a complex system that is continuously applied in Toyota-supplier relationships.Under this system, Toyota and a supplier agree on a number of long-term issues and objectives to strengthen the supplier’s competitiveness. In the course of intense consultations, the long-range objectives are scaled down to annual targets, the so-called â€Å"target values†. On this basis, the supplier undertakes appropriate steps and measures to reach these goals as agreed. Progress is regularly evaluated in terms of organization, effort and achievement and the assessment is communicated to the supplier. Suppliers that succeed in raising their levels of competitiveness receive awards.In case suppliers experience difficulties in their efforts to attain the agreed targets, Toyota provides expertise to analyze the problems and to design measures to remedy the situation. The continuing circle of improvement, attainment and further improvement enables suppliers to improve their competitive edge, while laying the foundation for a stable and long-term business relationship with Toyota, as well as for a broadened range of business opportunities. This long-term approach also helps to overcome problems emanating from economic recession and turmoil.Environmentally-Friendly Products Based on â€Å"Green Procurement† In order to produce environmentally-friendly products, Toyota aims to procure parts, materials and equipment that have low environmental impact from suppliers that always give sufficient consideration to the environment. Toyota’s Supplier Strategies: Strengths and Weaknesses Strengths Suppliers are considered part of Toyota’s value chain. Having strong relationships with partners provides Toyota with certain advantages. Its lean production methods are directly integrated with the efficiency of suppliers.The advantages that Toyota acquires of its supplier strategies include the inventory that Toyota receives JIT from its suppliers. Toyota’s suppliers work hand in hand with Toyota to improve processes and the quality of its products. These supplier strategies also help Toyota shed its costs. The work that Toyota has done with its suppliers has helped the suppliers in eliminating waste from their factory floors; shedding cost and getting the best out of the least. All these savings and reductions in costs are passed on to Toyota as low priced – high quality parts and components.These supplier strategies have also increased Toyota’s qu ality, and have decreased defects to a bare minimum. Another visible advantage of Toyota’s supplier strategies is that the company has decreased its time-to-market for its new or developing products. Suppliers respect Toyota and share common interests and mutual benefits with Toyota. These strong ties also help improve Toyota’s insight on the occurrence of problems and avoiding them, as it goes beyond just handling its direct suppliers; in fact it also deals with its Tier 2, Tier 3 and Tier 4 suppliers.Also, Toyota’s decision to select most of its suppliers that are geographically located near to it, also helps solve logistics problem and brings a large reduction in the cost of transporting the parts or components to its plants. Weaknesses (Toyota has a very studied and planned organizational structure. Its departments are perfectly set and planned. We as students did not have the ample resources to conduct a study on the weaknesses of Toyota – so what we mention here are just assumptions. ) Recent recalls that Toyota has suffered, have been to some extent blamed on its suppliers and Toyota’s Supplier Management.There is a wide speculation that since Toyota, after overtaking GM as the largest auto manufacturer set its goal to increase its market share from 11% to 15%. Due to this Toyota lost sight of its core philosophies, and grew complacent in its supplier selection process. Thus, summarizing that Toyota is only as good as its network of suppliers. Denso, a core supplier of Toyota, which conducts more than 30% of its business with Toyota is said to be somewhat frustrated with the closeness that Toyota maintains with it. This is due to the reason being that Denso also supplies to other customers which are also car manufacturers.These customers are namely Honda, Nissan and Mazda etc. and are considered by Toyota as its main competitors; especially Honda and Nissan. These deviating relationships might possibly hurt or damage T oyota in the long run; if corrective measures are not taken. Also, some suppliers complain that although Toyota is their best customer, it doesn’t let go of its bargaining power; meaning that Toyota keeps an upper hand over everything. It can also be argued that having low inventories, if not managed well can cause problems in the production line.Corrective Actions Required Knowing how Toyota works, if these problems come into existence; Toyota will have a carefully planned approach to solving them. To begin with Toyota would first clarify the problem and see the comparison between the current and the ideal or required state. Then as second step, it would grasp the actual situation and see the gaps, which have caused the problem to occur. A third step would be to break down the problem and set targets to correct them bit by bit. Finally, it would conduct an analysis of the underlying causes.What Toyota should do to prevent the problems mentioned in the (Weaknesses) section ab ove is that Toyota must improve its supplier management process and make some corrections to its supply chain. Conclusion Japanese carmakers have always been considered the benchmarks in their industry, and Toyota is the best among the Japanese car manufacturers, establishing it as the benchmark of benchmarks. Toyota has excellence embedded deep in its core and has helped and developed its suppliers to do the same, by integrating and applying a scope of mutual learning and development.Fun Fact As a full stop to this project, we would leave you with a fun fact to think over. Today, Toyota is the world's largest manufacturer of automobiles in unit sales and in net sales. It is by far the largest Japanese automotive manufacturer, producing more than 10 million vehicles per year, equivalent to one every six seconds. In the time it has taken you to read this paragraph, Toyota would have produced at least another three or four cars! Resources Books 1. TOYOTA SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT: Anant h V. Iyer, Sridhar Seshadri and Roy Vasher 2.THE TOYOTA WAY – 14 Management Principles from the World’s Greatest Manufacturer: Jefferey K. Liker 3. THE TOYOTA LEADERS – An Executive Guide: Masaaki Sato Online Resources and Websites 1. http://www. economist. com/node/15576506 2. www. toyota-industries. com 3. http://www. strategicsourceror. com/2011/04/toyota-supply-of-cars-will-be-impacted. html 4. www. toyota-global. com 5. http://blogs. gxs. com/morleym/2010/02/improving-visibility-across-toyota%E2%80%99s-supply-chain. html 6. http://thethrivingsmallbusiness. om/articles/what-can-we-learn-from-the-toyota-crisis/ 7. www. businessweek. com 8. http://www. toyota. co. nz 9. www. toyotasupplier. com 10. http://www. industryweek. com/articles/toyotas_real_secret_hint_its_not_tps_13432. aspx 11. http://www. autoweek. com/article/20060818/free/60816004 12. www. inc. com 13. http://www. businessweek. com/bwdaily/dnflash/content/jan2010/db20100128_907800. htm 14. http:/ /www. bnet. com/blog/mba/lessoned-learned-from-toyotas-crisis/1939 15. http://findarticles. com/p/articles/mi_m0KJI/is_10_118/ai_n27023150/ An Analysis of Toyota’s Strategic Procurement and Supply Chain Management Purchasing & Materials Management| | Strategic Procurement & Supply Chain Management| Introduction The topic selected is (Strategic Procurement & Supply Chain Management). For this study, we have selected Toyota Motor Corporations as our company of choice. Toyota is without doubt the best in the world, with its many philosophies and principles on how to make the best out of the least; JIT, lean production and elimination of waste and the desire for continuous improvement are just a few ways how Toyota has become the best in the auto industry.Toyota as a name, a company, and as a brand has become synonymous with Quality. At the heart of its success, lie family values that have been passed down; a norm that has become the Organizational Culture of Toyota – The Quest for Excellence, and The Passion to Lead. Toyota’s achievement of excellence stems from implementing lean production, or which they refer to as ‘The Toyota Way’. The most visible product of Toyotaà ¢â‚¬â„¢s quest for excellence is its manufacturing philosophy, called the Toyota Production System (TPS).We have selected to apply this topic to Toyota, because to perfect their way of lean production, they work on it from the root; i. e. their suppliers, and purchasing strategy. Scope of Project Analyzing the strategies of Toyota, and how they implement it in their purchasing and procurement policy. Also, analyzing how Toyota selects it suppliers and what selection processes do they go through; and also conducting an analysis of Toyota’s supply chain and its supply chain management. Limitations This study was really difficult to attain, as personal interviews or nteractions with Toyota’s direct employees was beyond our budgets to conduct. This study is a result of hard work and extensive internet and textual or written research from more than ten websites and three books. Also, the study of Toyota was too large and very difficult to summarize into the limited requirem ents of this paper. Company Background The Toyota Motor Co. Ltd was first established in 1937 as a spin-off from Toyoda Automatic Loom Works, one of the world's leading manufacturers of weaving machinery. The Toyoda Automatic Loom Works was then headed by Japan's â€Å"King of Inventors† Sakichi Toyoda.The patent rights to one of his machines had been sold to Platt Brothers (UK) and provided the seed-money for the development and test-building of Toyota's first automobiles. August 2007 marked the 70th anniversary of TMC. The fledgling company founded by Kiichiro Toyoda, Sakichi's son, has since blossomed into the leader that it is today. In 1950 the company experienced its one and only strike. Labour and management emerged from this stoppage firmly committed to the principles of mutual trust and dependence, and that corporate philosophy still guides T0oyota’s growth today.Production systems were improved in the late 1950s, culminating in the establishment of the Ã¢â‚¬Ë œToyota Production System. ‘ It became known as TPS in 1970 but was established much earlier by Taiichi Ohno. Based on the principles of Jidoka, Just-in-time and Kaizen, the system is a major factor in the reduction of inventories and defects in the plants of Toyota and its suppliers, and it underpins all of Toyota’s operations across the World. Toyota launched its first small car (SA Model) in 1947.Production of vehicles outside Japan began in 1959 at a small plant in Brazil, and continued with a growing network of overseas plants. Toyota believes in localizing its operations to provide customers with the products they need where they need them; this philosophy builds mutually beneficial long-term relationships with local suppliers and helps the company fulfill its commitments to local labour. Over and above manufacturing, Toyota also has a global network of design and ‘Research and Development' facilities, embracing the three major car markets of Japan, North Am erica and Europe.In every community in which the company operates, Toyota strives to be a responsible corporate citizen; close relationships with people and organizations in the local community are essential contributors to mutual prosperity. Across the world, Toyota participates enthusiastically in community activities ranging from the sponsorship of educational and cultural programmes to international exchange and research. Toyota has the fastest product development process in the world. New cars and trucks take 12 months or less to design, while competitors typically require two to three years.Toyota is benchmarked as the best in class by all of its peers and competitors throughout the world for high quality, high productivity, manufacturing speed, and flexibility. Toyota automobiles have consistently been at the top of quality rankings. Strategic Analysis To better understand a firm and its placement of its strategies, we must conduct an analysis of factors that might affect its selection of strategies. SWOT Analysis Strengths * Toyota Motor Corporation is the world’s largest vehicle manufacturer by production and sales. * Toyota is best known for environmentally safe, quality, reliability, durability and value for money. Toyota’s Camry and Corolla have been the top-selling cars in their respected categories; in the past eight out of nine years. Also, Toyota produces the globe’s best selling hybrid car, the Prius – which by 2010 had surpassed two million sales worldwide. * Strong distribution and marketing efforts focused on meeting diverse needs, high quality sales and services, and close involvement with customers. * Low cost, high quality factory operations guided by just in time. * Toyota maintains long-term partnerships with suppliers, and strategic partners. Toyota holds the competitive edge of being the undisputed quality leader in automotive marketing. * Strong brand equity. * Diversified product portfolio (Lexus, Daihat su, Hino) leading to increasing customer base. * Toyota’s success allows it to invest heavily in Research and Development and in the future. Weaknesses * From the last quarter of 2009 through to the 1st quarter of 2010, Toyota had recalled more than 8 million cars and trucks globally in numerous recall campaigns, and temporarily stopped production and sales. * Toyota was badly hit by the 2008 financial crisis, and declared its first annual loss in its 70 years history. Toyota does not have detailed customer segmentation * Customers are not involved in the process. * Toyota places a very high level of responsibility on employee shoulders. * After the 2009-2010 recall crisis, Toyota was criticized for not having or employing enough PR staff, and that it was not able to manage its Customer Relations. Opportunities * Joint ventures with French motoring companies Peugeot and Citroen has provided various opportunities for the company to produce cars in France. * North American cons umers have shifted to more fuel-efficient and higher quality products of the European and Japanese automakers. Produce fuel-efficient, higher quality and smaller automobiles that can attract the consumers in developing and poor countries. * There is a growing demand for hybrid electric cars. Threats * Rising oil prices and other car maintenance costs, leading to decrease in car ownership. * Encouragement from governments and pressure from environmentalists to turn to more environmental friendly methods of transportation (e. g. cycling and public transportation) * Escalating competition in the low priced car market by the entrance of several newly industrialized countries. Continuing trade frictions due to trade imbalances between Japan and other countries and the lack in openness of the Japanese market to import. * Declining economic growth on a global scale. * Major producers, including the Big Three of U. S (G. M, Ford and Chrysler) offered significant discounts across their lineu ps. PESTLE Analysis Political The auto-industry is being pushed into a socio-politico-economic corner. Carmakers are regularly being restricted with new laws or policies or requirements; that they must adhere to. Toyota likewise is linked closely to the policies of the government.Not only this, but emerging countries, that are keen to develop an auto sector are putting political pressure on Toyota, so as to protect it and develop it. Economic Toyota Company is a pillar company in the auto mobile business, a flag of economic progress. The Toyota Company has been a core company, a unique phenomenon, which has dominated the twentieth century. However, the automobile industry, including Toyota Company has suffered a series of structural problems and has become riddled with contradictions and economic discontinuities; including the recent financial crisis. SocialAs part of the development in automotive industry, the Toyota Company actually affects the society as a whole. It employs milli ons of people directly, and tens of millions others indirectly. Its products have transformed society, bringing unbelievable levels of mobility and changing the ways people live and work. Nearly since its startup, Toyota has been a model of social discipline, control and improvement and it is not just the auto sector, where it has left a mark. Toyota is considered a role model in millions of organizations and institutions worldwide. It has with its culture been the example that professors use in every business school.Technological Toyota works on a brilliant scale and has such a vast influence that it is impossible to miss. Due to continuous improvement in demands, the level of technology that Toyota has to implement is increasing, and this adds to the challenges of heavy investment burdens on its R&D, and increases its uncertainties and risks in developing the technologies. Technologically, the automotive industry is becoming increasingly competitive. Legal Toyota is subject to a m ultitude of rules and regulations, as well as laws and legislations of a more legal nature.These laws and legislations cover areas such as competition law, intellectual property law, taxation, consumer protection law and emissions. Environmental Transportation through automobiles consumes a lot of the earth’s precious resources. Also to include as environmental issues are the network of roads that are made for the running of automobiles. The forests or ecosystems that are destroyed to make those roads are also environmental issues. Also, the extraction of oil as a usage of fuel; all are environmental costs. Another environmental cost is the extraction of raw materials that go into the making of these automobiles.Indirectly the automotive industry brings people congestion, pollution, traffic accidents and fatalities and a wave of other environmental troubles. Due to this, Toyota needed to establish R&D centres to take advantage of research infrastructure, human capital and tec hnical and technological knowledge, so they can develop vehicles to satisfy the requirements of the environmental and safety regulations more effectively. Toyota’s Core Competencies Toyota has several core competencies which they could utilize to further gain advantage over their competitors. In January of 2009, Toyota overtook the U.S. auto giant General Motors, to become the market leader in the automotive industry. One core competency of Toyota is their brand management. The strength of their automotive marketing has been such that their brand is known even in the parts of the world where cars are not the common medium of transportation. Another core competency is their supply chain management, which shows their ability to maintain a steady stream of raw material coming in for production, because of their long-term good relationships with their steel, glass, plastics and other raw material suppliers.Another thing that forms part of their core competencies is their highly c oordinated logistics system, which is outsourced; and leads to excellent inventory management and always on schedule production activities. Another major core competency of Toyota is their ability at the moving assembly line. Not only this; The Toyota Way of lean production, its JIT and TQM approach; all are part of its core competencies. Being the pioneer of such mass production and waste elimination system, they were able to get ahead of the competitors manufacturing process-wise and were also able to save on cost and time.Yet another core competency is Toyota’s focusing on its product development technology under a single product-information-management program through standardizing and incorporating them; thus highlighting Toyota’s work and effort on the development of sustainable production, and their commitment to perform environmentally. Toyota and its suppliers Toyota has basically 14 management principles, which combine to make ‘The Toyota Way’. Of those 14 principles, Principle 11 states that: â€Å"Respect your Extended Network of Partners and Suppliers by Challenging Them and Helping Them Improve†.This is merely a small sentence, but is more than enough to illustrate the importance of its suppliers to Toyota, and how it sees them as strategic partners and a part of its organization. Toyota in its early days was very small, and didn’t have a lot of business or production. It didn’t have the resources, capital or equipment to design and make the myriad of components that go into the making of a car. Toyota’s offer to its suppliers was small. It was the opportunity for all partners to grow the business together and mutually benefit in the long term.So, like the associates who work inside Toyota, suppliers became part of the extended family who grew and learned the Toyota Production System. Even when Toyota became a global powerhouse, it maintained its supplier partnerships. One way that Toyota has honed its skills in applying TPS is by working on projects with suppliers. Toyota needs its suppliers to be as capable as its own plants at building and delivering high-quality components just in time. Moreover, Toyota cannot cut costs unless suppliers cut costs, lest Toyota simply push cost reductions onto suppliers, which is not the Toyota Way.Since Toyota does not view parts as commodities to be sourced on the market through open bidding, it is critical that it works with highly capable suppliers that are following TPS or an equivalent system. Toyota’s purchasing department has its own quality and TPS experts to work with suppliers when there are problems. Toyota pays careful attention to its suppliers and their performance. It provides ample hands-on assistance and monitoring to avoid problems; or in the case of an occurrence of a problem, to correct it as soon as possible.If problems do occur, Toyota sends a team of its experts to address the problem and to create the ac tion plan. Whereas other companies would threaten problem suppliers—â€Å"Fix the problems or we will drop you†Ã¢â‚¬â€Toyota nurses them out of their â€Å"sickness† in a very holistic way. There are several advantages for Toyota in treating suppliers as strategic partners or part of the Toyota family. First of all Toyota’s JIT system is a practiced specimen, of how important and beneficial supplier relationships truly are. This system would have never been truly effective if successful integration with suppliers had not taken place.Parts and components arrive just when they are needed and hence Toyota saves on storage and warehouse costs. Toyota’s suppliers are integral to the just-in-time philosophy, both when it is working smoothly and when there is a breakdown in the system. Toyota also saves money on its logistics, and this as well roots from careful integration with suppliers. Also the TQM system of Toyota can be traced back to Toyotaâ€℠¢s supply chain management. Toyota outsources almost 70% of the components that go into its cars, and it maintains close relationships with its key suppliers, so as to procure quality parts and components.Toyota has been rewarded time and time again for its serious investment in building a network of highly capable suppliers that is truly integrated into Toyota’s extended lean enterprise. Much of the award winning quality that distinguishes Toyota and Lexus results from the excellence in innovation, engineering, manufacture, and overall reliability of Toyota’s suppliers. Toyota’s Purchasing Strategy Toyota’s Purchasing/Procurement Policy The ultimate objective of Toyota is to produce vehicles that fully satisfy the customer.To this end, Toyota has developed three basic principles that guide its relationship with suppliers with a view to optimizing its purchases in a global context. These principles are the following: i) Fair competition based on an open d oor policy Toyota is open to any potential supplier, regardless of nationality, size or whether this company is a first-time supplier or not. Toyota’s co-operation with suppliers is solely based on business considerations, which include an assessment of the overall economic and technological capacities of the potential supplier.Critical parameters of this evaluation are quality, cost, technological capabilities and reliability regarding the on-time delivery of the required quantities of inputs, as well as the entrepreneur’s ability to implement a kaizen strategy, which means the continued improvement and enhancement of products, services and management. ii) Mutual benefit based on mutual trust Toyota believes in developing mutually beneficial, long-term relationships with suppliers based on trust and confidence. Close and wide-ranging communication with them is considered a key factor in building and maintaining trust. ii) Contribution to local economic development thr ough localization and good corporate governance As part of the on-going globalisation efforts, Toyota is relocating a larger part of its production to other countries. It is its objective to contribute to the host country’s economic development in line with Toyota’s market presence by purchasing parts and other inputs from local suppliers. This is a Flowchart of the Toyota’s Purchasing Process Toyota’s Supply Chain Management Toyota’s Supplier Consideration and the Selection Process At Toyota, choosing a supplier is a long, drawn-out process that involves erifying whether the supplier will mesh with the supply network. In some cases, suppliers are selected because they have innovations that improve processes or decrease costs. Both new and existing suppliers are expected to share their innovations with other suppliers that supply similar products. As a basic rule, Toyota expects its suppliers to excel in quality, cost, delivery, and engineering, in cluding technology, and management. These are the five key areas that shape competitive entrepreneurs and make them successful in a competitive environment.Thus, Toyota requires suppliers to maintain consistently high quality levels which can be measured in terms of the number of defect parts per million. In addition, suppliers need to build and to maintain a strong position regarding unique designs or special technologies, while being cost- competitive. They also need to follow and to monitor trends in information technology and be able to harmoniously amalgamate state-of-the-art technology with their business organization. It is often necessary that potential suppliers undergo a preparatory process before entering a business partnership with Toyota.During this period, the management should attach particular emphasis on the following issues: * Encouragement of an enterprise culture of creativity, continuous learning and improvement; * Particular attention on R & D, which should go beyond technological issues to include an analysis of both customers’ needs and competitors’ competitive potential; * Improvement of employees’ satisfaction in order to promote creativity and strengthen organizational development; * Strengthening the management information system to help executives to take informed and effective decisions.Toyota views new suppliers cautiously and gives only very small orders. They must prove their sincerity and commitment to Toyota’s high performance standards for quality, cost, and delivery. If they demonstrate this for early orders, they will get increasingly larger orders. Toyota will teach them the Toyota Way and adopt them into the family. This is a model of what Toyota expects from its suppliers. Toyota’s suppliers have to show excellence in areas that Toyota sees as critical. These areas are cost, delivery, engineering, management and quality.Toyota’s philosophy is that suppliers have to excel in thes e areas if they wish to stand out amongst other suppliers and to be successful with global competitiveness Tiered Supplier Organizations Toyota like many auto carmakers is a network of suppliers. Tier 1 suppliers are Toyota’s direct suppliers, which is followed by Tier 2 suppliers and so on. Lastly, there are the Tier 4 suppliers. These are generally small in size, but are critical to the suppliers that are supplying Toyota. Toyota, to maintain the smooth flow in its supply chain, even handles when problem exist in these Tiers.An example of this can be a situation in which a government regulation required a change in antirust coatings. More than 4,000 parts were impacted by this change, but there were only a small number of suppliers that supplied the coating materials. Thus, Toyota was able to focus attention on a few suppliers to develop the new coating materials to be provided to suppliers that coated the 4,000 parts. Working with these lower-tier suppliers was the key to making the necessary changes in a timely and efficient manner. Toyota chooses suppliers across multiple tiers so as to guarantee availability of innovative solutions across the supply chain.Pressure on Suppliers to Perform Toyota’s suppliers are always at their toes. They do not get complacent or feel that they can ease-out, even if they are considered as Toyota’s trusted suppliers and have been supplying Toyota quality materials for a number of years. Even suppliers who have acquired long-term contracts from Toyota, for supplying specific components for a model or set of models have to prove that they are worth the trust to have been given the contract. Otherwise they would jeopardize their opportunity of continuing as Toyota’s suppliers or risk not acquiring such a contract in future models.The depth of Toyota’s Supplier Relationship Toyota’s suppliers suggest that Toyota’s processes have a few characteristics that enable their success, na mely: * Pervasive collaboration tools that have common standards and are compatible with one another * Visibility and visual control not fogged by analysis * Trust to share intellectual property without fear of abuse * Modular view of teams and processes and flexible planning to keep goals aligned with customer needs * Encouragement of teams as a vehicle to solve problems Assisting and Helping SuppliersA key feature of Toyota’s supply chain is the automaker’s role in supplier capability development. This point has already been addressed earlier in this project, how Toyota provides assistance to its suppliers and helps them learn. Supplier Location Decisions Toyota’s planning for assembly plant sites assumes that most suppliers will be located at a reasonable distance from the assembly plant and that their delivery schedules will permit efficient operation of the assembly plant to produce vehicles based on the final vehicle mix and sequence.The low lot sizes of a ssembly plant parts orders imply that suppliers need to be located close to the assembly plant. Many suppliers choose to be located close to an assembly plant. In Japan, 85 percent of the volume comes from suppliers located within a 50-mile radius of a plant (i. e. , within a one-hour drive). In North America and Europe, the goal is for 80 percent of the parts to be delivered within three to five days lead time. The Toyota Target Value System The Toyota Target Value System is a complex system that is continuously applied in Toyota-supplier relationships.Under this system, Toyota and a supplier agree on a number of long-term issues and objectives to strengthen the supplier’s competitiveness. In the course of intense consultations, the long-range objectives are scaled down to annual targets, the so-called â€Å"target values†. On this basis, the supplier undertakes appropriate steps and measures to reach these goals as agreed. Progress is regularly evaluated in terms of organization, effort and achievement and the assessment is communicated to the supplier. Suppliers that succeed in raising their levels of competitiveness receive awards.In case suppliers experience difficulties in their efforts to attain the agreed targets, Toyota provides expertise to analyze the problems and to design measures to remedy the situation. The continuing circle of improvement, attainment and further improvement enables suppliers to improve their competitive edge, while laying the foundation for a stable and long-term business relationship with Toyota, as well as for a broadened range of business opportunities. This long-term approach also helps to overcome problems emanating from economic recession and turmoil.Environmentally-Friendly Products Based on â€Å"Green Procurement† In order to produce environmentally-friendly products, Toyota aims to procure parts, materials and equipment that have low environmental impact from suppliers that always give sufficient consideration to the environment. Toyota’s Supplier Strategies: Strengths and Weaknesses Strengths Suppliers are considered part of Toyota’s value chain. Having strong relationships with partners provides Toyota with certain advantages. Its lean production methods are directly integrated with the efficiency of suppliers.The advantages that Toyota acquires of its supplier strategies include the inventory that Toyota receives JIT from its suppliers. Toyota’s suppliers work hand in hand with Toyota to improve processes and the quality of its products. These supplier strategies also help Toyota shed its costs. The work that Toyota has done with its suppliers has helped the suppliers in eliminating waste from their factory floors; shedding cost and getting the best out of the least. All these savings and reductions in costs are passed on to Toyota as low priced – high quality parts and components.These supplier strategies have also increased Toyota’s qu ality, and have decreased defects to a bare minimum. Another visible advantage of Toyota’s supplier strategies is that the company has decreased its time-to-market for its new or developing products. Suppliers respect Toyota and share common interests and mutual benefits with Toyota. These strong ties also help improve Toyota’s insight on the occurrence of problems and avoiding them, as it goes beyond just handling its direct suppliers; in fact it also deals with its Tier 2, Tier 3 and Tier 4 suppliers.Also, Toyota’s decision to select most of its suppliers that are geographically located near to it, also helps solve logistics problem and brings a large reduction in the cost of transporting the parts or components to its plants. Weaknesses (Toyota has a very studied and planned organizational structure. Its departments are perfectly set and planned. We as students did not have the ample resources to conduct a study on the weaknesses of Toyota – so what we mention here are just assumptions. ) Recent recalls that Toyota has suffered, have been to some extent blamed on its suppliers and Toyota’s Supplier Management.There is a wide speculation that since Toyota, after overtaking GM as the largest auto manufacturer set its goal to increase its market share from 11% to 15%. Due to this Toyota lost sight of its core philosophies, and grew complacent in its supplier selection process. Thus, summarizing that Toyota is only as good as its network of suppliers. Denso, a core supplier of Toyota, which conducts more than 30% of its business with Toyota is said to be somewhat frustrated with the closeness that Toyota maintains with it. This is due to the reason being that Denso also supplies to other customers which are also car manufacturers.These customers are namely Honda, Nissan and Mazda etc. and are considered by Toyota as its main competitors; especially Honda and Nissan. These deviating relationships might possibly hurt or damage T oyota in the long run; if corrective measures are not taken. Also, some suppliers complain that although Toyota is their best customer, it doesn’t let go of its bargaining power; meaning that Toyota keeps an upper hand over everything. It can also be argued that having low inventories, if not managed well can cause problems in the production line.Corrective Actions Required Knowing how Toyota works, if these problems come into existence; Toyota will have a carefully planned approach to solving them. To begin with Toyota would first clarify the problem and see the comparison between the current and the ideal or required state. Then as second step, it would grasp the actual situation and see the gaps, which have caused the problem to occur. A third step would be to break down the problem and set targets to correct them bit by bit. Finally, it would conduct an analysis of the underlying causes.What Toyota should do to prevent the problems mentioned in the (Weaknesses) section ab ove is that Toyota must improve its supplier management process and make some corrections to its supply chain. Conclusion Japanese carmakers have always been considered the benchmarks in their industry, and Toyota is the best among the Japanese car manufacturers, establishing it as the benchmark of benchmarks. Toyota has excellence embedded deep in its core and has helped and developed its suppliers to do the same, by integrating and applying a scope of mutual learning and development.Fun Fact As a full stop to this project, we would leave you with a fun fact to think over. Today, Toyota is the world's largest manufacturer of automobiles in unit sales and in net sales. It is by far the largest Japanese automotive manufacturer, producing more than 10 million vehicles per year, equivalent to one every six seconds. In the time it has taken you to read this paragraph, Toyota would have produced at least another three or four cars! Resources Books 1. TOYOTA SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT: Anant h V. Iyer, Sridhar Seshadri and Roy Vasher 2.THE TOYOTA WAY – 14 Management Principles from the World’s Greatest Manufacturer: Jefferey K. Liker 3. THE TOYOTA LEADERS – An Executive Guide: Masaaki Sato Online Resources and Websites 1. http://www. economist. com/node/15576506 2. www. toyota-industries. com 3. http://www. strategicsourceror. com/2011/04/toyota-supply-of-cars-will-be-impacted. html 4. www. toyota-global. com 5. http://blogs. gxs. com/morleym/2010/02/improving-visibility-across-toyota%E2%80%99s-supply-chain. html 6. http://thethrivingsmallbusiness. om/articles/what-can-we-learn-from-the-toyota-crisis/ 7. www. businessweek. com 8. http://www. toyota. co. nz 9. www. toyotasupplier. com 10. http://www. industryweek. com/articles/toyotas_real_secret_hint_its_not_tps_13432. aspx 11. http://www. autoweek. com/article/20060818/free/60816004 12. www. inc. com 13. http://www. businessweek. com/bwdaily/dnflash/content/jan2010/db20100128_907800. htm 14. http:/ /www. bnet. com/blog/mba/lessoned-learned-from-toyotas-crisis/1939 15. http://findarticles. com/p/articles/mi_m0KJI/is_10_118/ai_n27023150/

Advantages Of City Life Essay

Sometime you may be think, the city life is better than village life. However there are so many advantages in city life. Actually the city life is more comfortable. As well as there are more opportunities for people to progress in their lives. There are a lot of facilities for people in the city and they have more opportunities for making money. Children living in the city can get a good education, because there are better schools in the town than in the village. When a person falls ill there are good government and private hospitals in the city to get treatment. There are large shop complexions, banks, offices, theaters, hostels, clubs, hospitals etc. in and around the city. People in the city have better transport facilities than the village. There is electricity, highway, communication, telecommunication, plumb facilities in the city. So people can lead a comfortable and enjoyable life in the city. Although living in the city has many advantages. Read more: Village life vs city life essay 1. People easily adapt themselves to city life; noise, traffic, etc. are hardly noticed. 2. There are many reasons why city life is preferable: there are more places for entertainment. 3. It is good to be near one’s friends and never cut off by weather conditions. 4. Life is never dull; there is always something to do. 5. There are better schools and services in big cities. 6. There are more chances for employment. There is a greater range of jobs and the pay is higher. 7. There is more opportunity to succeed in life. 8. There is more opportunity to meet a variety of interesting people. 9. Living standards are higher in cities 10. It is easier to earn more money. 11. The educational level is higher; it is a better place for children. 12. The teachers in the schools are better. 13. There is more choice of schools. 14. The shopping has a wider variety and prices are better. Although the life in the city is more comfortable than village life. village is not devolved area here we can’t get easily many facilities like transportation facilities, higher education facility, irrigation facility, electricity facility, health facility, communication facilities etc. Many peoples of village they most have done hard work in their field to produce many kind of grain production but the out come is little than their labor. They use to go long distant to take drinking water. There is no transportation facility that’s why they walk on foot to go one place to another place. Here are some disadvantages of village life no proper hospital nearby. no proper road, only dusty little paths. no shops close by. education is less available. villagers have to walk for miles to get fresh water. 1. City has many advantages over village, because city modern life facility are easily available, as telephone , gas , internet, schools, colleges, universities, hospitals,industries,factories, roads, airports, railway stations and many more, but most village are deprived of these many facilities like many villages no facility of gas, telephone , roads, etc. 2. City life is more advanced then village life, because in city you can get education facilities easily, you can find college or university of your own choice, more ever you can learn modern technologies easily in city from skilled person, but unfortunately these facilities are not easily available. 3. City people have more job opportunities have as compare to people living in villages, in city you can find job in factory or even you can start your own business, where is village is mostly agriculture based, so they mostly depend upon agriculture crops income. 4. In city you can find different health facilities like different government and private hospitals , but in village you can not find more health facilities. DISADVANTAGES OF CITY LIFE. there are some disadvantages too. The cost of living is very high in the city. Most goods are very expensive. There is no fresh air and pure water. The environment is polluted with dust, smoke, garbage and dioxide gases from factories. Most of the people who live in the city are corrupted. So there are lots of crimes in the city. Many thefts and murders often take place in the city. The city is always busy and noisy. There are a lot of vehicles and people in the road. The streets are dusty and unclean. So it is hard to lead a healthy life in the city. As well as there are so many advantages in the village life. Mainly the people of the village live in unity and peace. The villagers earn money very hard and earn money enough for live. So they live less competition with each other. So they can reach a good position. They have more friends in the community since it is small. The village people always try to protect their traditional habits and culture. The village has clean air and the environment is very beautiful. The village has less noise and rush. So the pollution is less. The village has not lot of vehicles. So roads are less dangerous for driving cycling. They can get fresh vegetables and fresh fruits. The environment of the village is pleasant and silent and it has scenic beauty. The village has not only good points, but also it has bad points. The village has intelligent people. But many people are not educated. Villager’s children go to the village’s school. They are not go to the city’s school. They have difficult to keep up with new developments in their field or profession. Same day villagers live same place. Village people have to face many difficulties for their lives , like traveling problems. They have to go to the city for supply their needs. Although the life in the city is more comfortable than village, I like village life than city. 5. But in city there are also some problems like pollution, traffic jam, tension and you have no free time to meet with relatives and friends, these problem are not found in villages, because of this village people are more healthier and energetic, because they have pure food available them no pollution problems.

Externalities Of Water Pollution Environmental Sciences Essay

Hu Siyi, frailty curate of H2O resources, said that serious rivers pollution and the deteriorating aquatic ecology are â€Å" rather outstanding † and may endanger the state ‘s sustainable growing. This essay is speaking about the outwardnesss of H2O pollution in China. The outwardnesss mean the outside effects of activities, negative outwardnesss mean the bad consequence. The outwardnesss are created when societal costs and benefits differ from private costs and benefits. For illustration, a chemical works may dump waste into a river in order to minimise its costs. Further down the river, a H2O company has to handle the H2O to take unsafe chemicals before providing imbibing H2O to its clients. Its clients have to pay higher monetary values because of the pollution There are 4 chief solutions of authorities intercession of outwardnesss: First intercession is Regulation which means authorities regulations on how much pollution allowed. Second intercession is Widening Property Rights which means authorities gives those who are injured the right to action. Third intercession is Taxation which means authorities Shifts the cost to the consumers. The 4th intercession is permissions which means authorities determines how much of an outwardness should be allowed in society, divides those effects into units, so issues licenses which than be traded and sold between companies. First, the H2O pollution in China is extraordinary serious It is showed by China Daily, which was established in June 1981 and has the widest print circulation of any English-language newspaper in the state ( over 500,000 transcripts per issue, of which a tierce are abroad ) that 40 per centum of Chinese rivers were earnestly polluted and unfit for imbibing after 75 billion tones of sewerage and waste H2O were discharged in 2010. As the consequence the serious H2O pollution have increased the hazard of disease and malignant neoplastic disease. For Industrialization. In a figure of pollutants released by TVIEs ( township-village industrial endeavors ) have been linked to inauspicious wellness effects. In China overall, liver and tummy malignant neoplastic disease deceases have doubled since the 1970s, and are now the taking causes of malignant neoplastic disease mortality in rural China. China now has the highest liver malignant neoplastic disease decease rate in the universe. When TVIEs in more contaminated countries are examined, they show a general addition in malignant neoplastic disease mortality. Harmonizing to the figure of Cancer mortality from H2O pollution. It besides shows that malignant neoplastic disease mortality in contaminated countries has been steadily increasing over clip. Although diet and alcohol ingestion may play a function in the increased malignant neoplastic disease rates, environmental factors are besides relevant. ( Wu, 2006 ) . For agribusiness, in malice of the increased usage of fertiliser, merely 30 % of fertilisers applied to agricultural harvests are used efficaciously Despite the increased usage of fertiliser, merely 30 % of fertilisers applied to agricultural harvests are used efficaciously. As a consequence, nonpoint beginning pollution has been declining dramatically. Surplus usage of fertilisers, and the discharge of human and livestock body waste into the lakes of intensively farmed states are taking to lakes eutrophication ( overloading of H2O organic structures with organic stuffs and foods, which helped algal blooms and consume the O available for aquatic beings ) . The proliferation of algae has affected H2O supply beginnings and forced the impermanent closing of H2O workss, which are turning in fresh water. For illustration, Taihu, which is the 3rd largest fresh water lake in China, has become a major sink of agricultural and rural wastewaters generated in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces. As a consequence Algal blooms are the factor of a far more serious menace to human wellness, More than 80 % of 480 algae samples taken from surface Waterss collected throughout China produced unwellnesss. and the inordinate usage of fertilisers besides a important issue of a far more serious menace to human wellness. Second, H2O pollution have caused serious H2O deficit and H2O deficit have given many negative outwardnesss to Chinese life and China ‘s economic system About Chinese life: Because of the big population the demand of H2O in China is extraordinary monolithic. With a population of 1.3 billion people, China consumes more than 600 billion three-dimensional metres of H2O every twelvemonth, and about three-fourthss of its functional H2O resources. It is reported by the Ministry of Water Resources that the mean per capita of H2O resources is merely 2,100 three-dimensional metres each twelvemonth, or about 28 per centum of the universe ‘s mean degree. About two-thirds of Chinese metropoliss are water-needy, while about 300 million rural occupants lack entree to safe imbibing H2O, taking to a national H2O deficit of over 50 billion three-dimensional metres on norm every twelvemonth ( Hu, 2012 ) On the other manus. When the demand of H2O is more greater than the supply of H2O in China the monetary value of H2O in China will growing somewhat. In north of China H2O deficit is more serious than other topographic point in China, so the monetary value in North of China is higher than others, as a consequence people who live in North of China should pay more money on H2O, the high monetary value of H2O will add force per unit area to the people and people will hold less money to purchase or devour goods and services, this phenomenon give negative effects to China ‘s economic system. Meanwhile, Uncountable industries in China besides consume much H2O. For illustration, Beijin, which is a 1 of the biggest metropoliss in China, which has several H2O job consumed 3.06 A- 108 m3 H2O in 2008. Consequences from fake scenario illustrated that, due to the utmost H2O scarceness state of affairs, industry in Beijing would still confront a serious H2O shortage job even with a really optimistic scenario for the hereafter It is said by Hu who is the president of China that the H2O deficit will acquire worse in the hereafter, Unless we take decisive and mandatory steps to halt the over-exploitation activities, . So Chinese authorities chief usage Regulation, which means authorities regulations on how much pollution allowed to work out H2O deficit. It is announced by local authoritiess that Adding to the state ‘s H2O safety force per unit area are ambitious development programs In 2012, which experts say will necessarily greatly increase H2O demand for industrial and residential usage. Furthermore the State Council, or China ‘s cabinet, unveiled a guideline on Thursday to modulate the usage of H2O under â€Å" the strictest standards, † cresting the maximal volume of H2O usage at 700 billion three-dimensional metres by the terminal of 2030 and China will work to maintain its entire volume of H2O usage below 670 billion three-dimensional metres in 2020.. Besides, the authorities will dispatch its supervising over development of belowground H2O, farther protect beginnings of imbibing H2O, and reconstruct the aquatic ecological system by presenting water-use licences and other steps. ( Hu, 2012 ) The cardinal authorities has planned 4 trillion kwais ( $ 634.9 billion ) of investing in H2O resources preservation undertakings over the following 10 old ages, of which 1.8 trillion kwais will be invested during the 2011-2015 period. Now China faces a tougher state of affairs in H2O resources in the hereafter as demand increases amid the state ‘s rapid industrialisation and urbanisation, an functionary said Thursday at a imperativeness conference, China besides get in problem because of H2O deficit. The Chinese authorities has already made a committedness to salvaging the state ‘s quickly depleting H2O resources. but how to set up a legislative and regulative mechanism, every bit good as a policy model to steer the dearly-won attempts of H2O pollution control is besides a large challenge for Chinese authorities

Utilitarianism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 6

Utilitarianism - Essay Example pproaches to ethics in the history of philosophical thought, Unitarianism was supported by different authors, which resulted in the creation of many varieties of the concept. However, among the most famous and powerful can be named the work by John Stuart Mill, in which he explains the details of the concept and provides logical grounding for its relevance. Therefore, I suggest resorting to the ideas of the famous philosopher to defend the practice of tortures. The core of Utilitarianism is developed from the idea that that actions are as good as their consequences are. Mill argued that there is no value of searching for the morality of an action in the action itself while leaving the context in which it occurs without attention. Consequently, according to Utilitarianism, human morality should serve the principle of Utility or the â€Å"Greatest Happiness Principle† which persuades that â€Å"actions are right in proportion as they can promote happiness and wrong when they produce the reverse of happiness.† (Troyer 98-99) Moreover, the notion of happiness should regarded as a sum of happiness of the majority, which is more essential than the happiness of the one. Applying the concept of utilitarianism to torturing terrorist or military, it becomes clear that its essence and purpose can be fully justified under the condition that this intervention is aimed at the common good. Firstly, under the principles of Utilitarianism, the happiness of one person is less important than the happiness of many. (Evans 53-66) Subsequently, interests of one person can be sacrificed for the sake of preserving interests of the majority. Secondly, the morality of an action should be evaluated taking into account consequences which they would bring, rather than whether a particular action is right or wrong. (Troyer 98-99) It follows that it is morally right to torture a person who hold the information related to the potential harm that can be caused to masses of people. The issue of

Accident investigation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Accident investigation - Essay Example Furthermore, it acts to fulfil the legal framework and guidelines set aside by the Roads and Safety Department. Lastly, it act to prevent any blame via establishment of the causative agent of the accident, and therefore, mitigating it in case of any occurrence in future. In case of serious cases that my necessitate compensation, a final report is drawn out and forwarded to the insurance firms. The National Transportation Safety Board possess the mandate to conduct investigations to conducting all the civil aviation accidents. Additionally, they do control any release of hazardous materials in the environment in the course of transportation activities. The board has been accused of being quite hazy in implementation of its activities, hence leading to persistent occurrences of accidents. However, there is a need to intensify their investigation activities, both pre and post incident occurrences. The team should work together to prevent any occurrence of accidents by ensuring that no driver is intoxicated with alcohol and other drugs as they drive. The set policies such as speed limits, vehicles maintenance, roads, air, and rail maintenance should undergo regular checks and evaluations to ensure that they are up-to-date. Those caught with dangerous driving should receive heavy fines. Most significantly, the teams dealing with the causes of accident should be rich in skills, so that they may not assume even a single idea leading to the cause of the accident. Adoption of a strategic plan with number of accidents reduction should be in place. All these will aim at ensuring that NTSB remains reactive in the roles (Invest in Transportation,

Environmental science Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Environmental science - Research Paper Example The animals that inhabit this island are different from the ones that live elsewhere. This is because of the geographical isolation of the animals that have lived in these islands for centuries. This was what led to the development of the theories of the naturalist, Charles Darwin, who discovered that the differences in the species that lived on this island were entirely due to the isolation of these animals from other species elsewhere. The conservation of these unique species is the responsibility of the people who are associated with these islands. For instance, the conservationist, Bill Roberson, who is the president and founder of the organization, INCA (International Nature and Cultural Adventures), talks of the need for the people who are a part of the tourism industry in this area to inculcate in themselves a love for the area and the will to conserve them (inca1travel). This may be more than just a desire to conserve nature for the love of it. This may also be the result of calculated economic activity. The beauty of the Galapagos Islands results from the fact that it has intensely diverse flora and fauna. The reason as to why people visit these islands is entirely the presence of this diversity. The presence of penguins in an equatorial island itself indicates the diversity that boggles the mind of the tourist in this island. The fact that the conservation of this beauty is necessary for the continuance of the tourism industry remains an important point. The economic aspect of the conservation, however, does not lessen the importance of the role that is played by the tourism industry in the conservation of the beauty and environment of the Galapagos Islands. The reason as to why Darwin was able to create the theories that he did was the diversity in the number of finches that are present in the Galapagos Islands. There are seventeen kinds of finches on these islands and they contribute to the diversity of it. The differences in the finches were

Munchausen syndrome by proxy (MSbP) Research Paper

Munchausen syndrome by proxy (MSbP) - Research Paper Example ddition ‘by proxy’ means ‘through a substitute’ denoting that it is a parent/ adult/ guardian caretaker who is inflicting symptoms in a child and not on themselves. It is a form of child abuse, and a mental disorder that warrants speedy treatment due to its deadliness. Research indicates a 6-10% mortality rate amongst MSbp victims, thus making it perhaps the most lethal form of abuse (Eminson & Postlethwaite, 2000). Munchausen by proxy differs from the Munchausen syndrome in that whereas in Munchausen by proxy, symptoms are deliberately induced in another separate individual, Munchausen syndrome on the other hand occurs when one pretends to be sick or injured on purpose. They hurt themselves, make up symptoms, push for risky operations or try to rig laboratory reports in order to gain attention. In Munchausen by proxy, the caretaker can deliberately harm the child for example by poisoning, medication, falsifying fever, withholding food, suffocation, infections, physical injury, manipulating laboratory results to indicate serious illness in order to gain attention of the medical practitioners and perpetuate a medical relationship. It is not done to achieve a concrete benefit such as financial gain. Munchausen syndromes belong to a group of conditions called factitious disorders, of which they are the most severe and chronic. Factitious disorders are either made up in another person or inflicted on self and can either be psychological or physical (Schreier & Libow, 1993). In approximately 85% of all cases of MSbp, the mother is often the culprit responsible for inflicting the illness or symptoms. However, it also possible but rare to have cases of MSbp induced by non-relatives for instance, medical professionals for a hospitalized patient, for other reasons. Most of the cases involve pre-scholars with a roughly equal number of girl and boy victims though there have been reports of Munchausen by proxy victims in children up to 16 years old. Experts believe

Engineering material Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Engineering material - Essay Example The central part of the specimen possesses reduced cross-sectional area than the end parts. The reduced gauge ensures that the highest stresses occur within the gauge, and not near the grips of the load frame, preventing strain and fracture of the specimen near or in the grips (Fabila 2010). Incremental application of the tensile load to the specimen and its corresponding extension are recorded and plotted by a computer in the form of a load versus elongation graph. This graph is converted into an engineering stress versus engineering strain graph, which is later used to calculate material properties such as yield strength, Young’s modulus, ultimate tensile strength, resilience, and toughness of material. The experiment was conducted on specimens made of Mild Steel (Grade 250), Aluminium 6061, Copper, and Brass. All test specimens had an initial gauge length of 25 mm. All other dimensions of specimens are given below: Each specimen was measured using the calipers to determine the diameter and cross section. A gauge length was determined and scribed into the specimen so the distance between two marks could be measured after the tensile test was completed (Fabila 2010). The specimen was securely placed into the jaws of the Instron load frame so that it was equally spaced between the two clamps (Fabila 2010). The axial and transverse extensometers were attached to the reduced gauge section of the specimen. Care was taken to ensure that the axial extensometer was set correctly, and the transverse extensometer was across the complete diameter of the specimen (Fabila 2010). The test with each specimen continued until fracture. After that, the specimen was removed, and the equipment was reset for the next test. The results of the uniaxial test were used to calculate material properties using the formulas provided below. The results of the tensile tests

Research Topic Identification Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Research Topic Identification - Essay Example For example, when I studied the article written by Dufwenderg (2011) on game theory to explain the human psychology, I found the cognitive understanding of the psychology as an essential part of the psychology to have grip to answer most of the question of human psychology. We consider Chess games as the toughest games and there is a requirement of minds that can decide rationally but Ewerhart (2000) argues that Chess-like games are solvable in at most two steps. This is the power of cognitive powers that a human mind can use to solve the complex problems. Another important aspect of cognitive psychology is that it starts observing the human psychology right from beginning. This is the basic way to explore and drive new dimensions in the field of Psychology. This is illustrated by Eacott and Crawley (1999) by analyzing on the childhood amnesia. Childhood amnesia refers to the inability of children and adults to recall events that took place during their infancy and early childhood (H ayne & Jack, 2011). This is very augmenting for me to choose the cognitive psychology in order to learn on ways that can reflect the human psychology. Dufwenberg, M. (2001). Game theory. Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Sciences. Vol. 2 (2). p. 167. Ewerhart, C.

Base on the report that has written. Continue to write on the parts Assignment

Base on the report that has written. Continue to write on the parts that have been highlighted in green colour. The assessment, - Assignment Example It is therefore recommended for the children to wait until they attain the required age. Although it is quite unknown on the implication of marathon to underage, the experts have recommended them waiting until they attain puberty (Bredemeier, et al. 1986). Most doctors recommend children to avoid long distance because of trauma and can lead to bone doings. When someone trains for a marathon, it is normally tough mentally and physically, exhausting and time consuming. Therefore, underage it is highly possible to affect someone priorities such as education (Bredemeier, et al. 1986). Before someone embarks on the long distance/marathon, it is suggested top run 10kms or even 4kms. Therefore, completing the race would be a major boost. 1.2 The Macro, Micro and Risk management context In the Sydney Marathon, the macro, micro, and risk management context would involve consideration of safety issues from an individual level to the safety of the group taking part in the marathon. The safety a nd well-being of all participants is of great importance if the team has to win. This has to focus on risks affecting individuals in person and those affecting the participants collectively (K. M. Nohr 2009 ). This would happen with respect to the protection of the best interests of the group or organization. A comprehensive risk management plan would be required to achieve the best level in ensuring safety of every participant in the group participants. One of the key factors to consider is working by the fundamental laws of the group. The three basic elements in risk control would be ensured. These elements include risk assessments, control, and financing (Katharine 2009). 2. The Risks Associated with The Trip The trip to the Sydney marathon will be like any other trip faced with uncertainties’ of risks such as injuries that include musculoskeletal injuries, bruises, cuts, fractures, as well as dislocations. There are also cases of accidents, which could result into injurie s, or death of some participants (Nohr 2013). These cases may make most of the participants fail to participate. Dealing with this risk would require that the number of participants in the marathon be more to initiate replacements especially in those sports involving collaborative participation. There should be provisions for first aid and medical care in case of accidents (Nohr 2013). 2.1 Location Analysis The marathon is specifically located in the Sydney International Regatta Center. This center is located in the west, 44 kilometers from the Sydney Olympic park. The risks associated with this location include the additional costs in terms of time and money involved since it is far, about one hour-drive, from the Central business district of Sydney (Office of Communities Sports and Recreation 2013). Other risk involved in this location is the raggedness of land due to the hilly lands. The climate would also be horrible for the group since most of the members are not used to tropic al climatic conditions. 2.2 The People The group selected includes 20 people but there is a risk that not the all members in the group will participate. Four people in the group are elderly, aged between 60 and 70. Two people are above 75 year but they can hardly take part due to their health problem. Four of them are children aged between 4 and 10 but one of them is suffering chronic asthma and another suffers peanut allergy. Six people are aged

The Socratic Theory of Recollection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Socratic Theory of Recollection - Essay Example What is education Are there any general objectives for it Are there any universal methods in it Is there such a thing as the typical child upon whom they may be practiced Traditionally, philosophical methods have consisted of analysis and clarification of concepts, arguments, theories, and language. Philosophers, as philosophers, have not usually created theories of education (or teaching, learning, and the like); instead, they have analyzed theories and arguments--sometimes enhancing previous arguments, sometimes raising powerful objections that lead to the revision or abandonment of theories and lines of arguments. (Leon Bailey, 205)However, there are many exceptions to this view of philosophy as analysis and clarification. The classical Greek philosophers, for example, construed philosophy much more broadly and explored a host of questions that later philosophers--more narrowly analytic in their outlook--rejected as outside the scope of philosophy. Indeed, for the Greeks, "philosophy" meant "love of wisdom," and today we think of their discussions as part of an "immortal conversation." Many of us believe that philosophy went too far in rejecting t he eternal questions, and there are signs that philosophers may once again invite their students to join in the immortal conversation. Socrates was one of the philosophers who grounded independent education, stating that both teacher and pupil had equal roles in the process of education. Further we will discuss Socrates' theory of recollection in the view of saying: " "There is no such thing as teaching, and no such thing as learning".Socrates' attitude to knowledge and education was clearly announced in Apology: a life of the former kind is not worth living. Once one recognizes one's ignorance, one must recognize that a life in such a state is not worth living. One must make it one's chief concern to seek out "wisdom, truth, and the best possible state of one's soul." Nevertheless, in the early dialogues, Socrates puts forth no substantive view about how such knowledge is to be acquired, either because he failed to recognize the problem or because he had no solution to it. (Charles J. Brauner, 353-355) His contribution is limited to seeking out those who profess to care about these things, questioning them, examining them, and testing them, learning from them if they know (unfortunately no one he meets does), and persuading them of their ignorance if and when they do not. Socrates had the support of the Delphic oracle (and perhaps even his daimonion) to sustain his faith that this was enough.The teacher, according to Socrates, is the leader of civilization. He must pursue truth even when his contemporaries oppose him. Integrity, above all, is demanded from the schoolmaster. The function of the teacher, according to Socrates, is to awaken the average man. The majority, he felt, is guided by irrational thoughts and lethargy, and lives in a cave of half-truths and illusions. Once the student is stirred, and once he becomes aware, he sees a new meaning in life. He probes and he questions. He is guided by curiosity and takes pleasure in

Cultural Considerations Essay Example for Free

Cultural Considerations Essay This paper will examine and assesses the cultural concerns and influences of today’s societies with mixed cultures and the effect on the criminal justices system. The paper will address how the cultural concerns and influences affect justice and security administration and practice. The paper will show some contemporary methods by the police and security used in societies of mixed cultures. The paper will address how these influences and considerations relate to and affect nondiscrimination practices within the criminal justice system. Finally, the paper will address Sir Robert Peel’s nine principles and how they fit into today’s police departments. The military occupation of numerous countries in the Middle East and Europe has brought police practices into question. The local police forces have been trained by the military in which the rules are different. The free people are suffering abuse at the hands of the police in those countries. In those cases where militant law is present and security is more prevalent, the police appear to work more for the current occupying military than for that country’s government or the people. More than 200 cases of torture have either been investigated or court marshaled by the United States in violation of the United Nations anti-torture body in 2006. This increase in torture may be caused by racial, ethnic, and religious differences in the contemporary War on Terrorism (French Wailes, 2008). The abuse on that scale does not occur within the United States; however, a problem still exists with the assessment of police and security personnel. These practices are scrutinized by the military, governments, security agencies, and local and foreign police. Of course, these practices question discrimination and profiling. Profiling is one of the major concerns here in the United States. Some confusion exits between profiling and racial profiling. A person cannot be profiled by a police officer based on color, sex, religion, or culture. However, a person can be profiled if he or she matches the description of a suspect. The measures currently used to assess officers are objective and may disclose intimate aspects of the person tested. The standard for recognition in the United States is the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies (CALEA) that was established in 1979. Psychological testing is in place, however; standards are not set by CALEA, and each agency conducts their own testing (French Wailes, 2008). In 1973, the National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals recommended that every police agency follow a formal selection process that includes a written test of mental ability or aptitude, an oral interview, a psychological examination, and a background investigation. It was believed that introducing greater screening and standardization to the selection process would result in a more qualified police force. International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) developed several guidelines for pre-employment psychological evaluations. These recommendations address such issues as validation of testing instruments, compliance with legislation, such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), using qualified psychologists familiar with the relevant research, and content of the written reports (Cochrane, Tett Vandercreek, 2008). Compliance with such acts as the ADA indicates the implementation of diversity in the testing process. A few of the most common comprehensive personality tests given to police officers during their psychological testing include the following: Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness (NEO) Personality Inventory, Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2(MMPI-2), and Inwald Personality Inventory (IPI). Traits from the NEO Personality Inventory–Revised, which was based on the five-factor model of personality, have also shown to be predictive of police performance. The MMPI-2 and the IPI have been shown to be effective in predicting several job criteria for police officers as well (Cochrane, Tett Vandercreek, 2008). Today’s American policing and justice system is based on English principles and English common law. One such tradition was limited police authority. This gives way to liberties and freedoms and limits governmental authority. Another tradition was the localized police control as opposed to a national, centralized police force as experienced in many other countries. This turned out to be both an advantage and a detriment. The localization resulted in fragmentation and decentralization of law enforcement. The advantage was acquiring little national control (Walker Katz, 2011, p. 24). Peel believed that prevention of crime could be accomplished without intruding into the lives of citizens so he developed the nine principles of community policing. His first concept was the basic mission of police was to prevent crime and disorder. The prevention of crime makes the job easier of the police. Police presence is deterrence, therefore prevents crime from occurring. This is the basis for today’s community policing concept. The public must also approve of the actions of the police in the performance of their duties. The people must work voluntarily with the police in observance of the laws to maintain public order (History, 2002). The public must comply voluntarily with the laws and work with the police. Most people do what is morally correct; in turn the police also must do what is lawfully correct. The police are directed by the United States Constitution and the Bill of Rights to safeguard every citizen’s right from interference from government. These philosophies are still observed today. If a citizen does not approve of the conduct of the police, a complaint is filed. If the public does not agree with a law, they work to make changes. If the public fails to observe the law, there are consequences, such an arrest or a fine. Another concept concerns the use of physical force to gain compliance. The public is cooperative with the police whereas physical force not need be employed. If compliance is not gained and physical force is required, the force will not be so great as to be considered excessive (History, 2002). The Constitution provides rights to the people and protects them from the police in this area. Laws in most states specifically write out what is considered â€Å"force,† when and how it can be used. Last, the police are specifically trained in the application of force through means of various weapons and hand to hand combat. This force is not to be excessive, not to be used as punishment, or in a punitive manner. The force used is that reasonable force to effect and arrest, to protect oneself or another from death or great bodily harm. The police serve both the public and the law, they shall not show impartiality, but to the law. The officers are also members of the public. Any interest the public has would also be interest to the police (History, 2002). In this case, the officer may come from any background may be either sex or any race. The officer must show fairness to members of other groups and not discriminate against those members or members of his or her own group. The officer shall treat everyone as equally as possible. The police are hired to uphold the law, at the same time serve the public. Peel’s theory indicates, when a conflict arises, the service to the law should outweigh the public service. This concept is contradictory to today’s practices. Policing has become â€Å"customer service†-oriented, where the customer is always right. The officers are members of the public, when they are in an off duty capacity, they are afforded the same rights as any other citizen. However, they should govern themselves as an upstanding citizen because they do represent the law. The final concept indicates the effectiveness of policing is the lack of crime and disorder. This concept is known as preventative policing. In today’s society, the crimes are not occurring where there is a high police presence. So, Peel’s principles are still used to some extent. The demographics have changed since his time. People and crimes have evolved. People’s values have changed, whereas they are tolerant of certain crimes. The attitudes toward police have changed. In a location where there is a strong police presence, fewer crimes occur. This is consistent with Peel’s concept. However, if the demographics of the neighborhood are less desirable, the people of the neighborhood indicate the police are prejudiced and do not want the police in the neighborhood. Thus, more crimes occur in this less protected neighborhood. If fewer police are present, the response time for an officer to an incident is longer because there are fewer officers and more calls. The ratio of officers to calls is higher. In these cases discrimination is blamed for the increased of police presence and the lack of it as well. The affected parties assume they are discriminated against because more police are in their areas, where more crime occurs. However, when the police are not present, they blame the police for the increase in crime because the police are not present. In conclusion, most of Sir Robert Peel’s principles can be applied to the organization of a police department today. In fact, many departments in England still work by his principles. Some need to be altered to accommodate today’s society to be more â€Å"customer† friendly. The United States Constitution and Bill of Rights need to be recognized, as well such as the Due Process Clauses to both the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments if his principles are applied.